The Royal History of Canada’s Maritime Provinces Round 2: Honouring the King at Fort Louisbourg

The reconstructed stronghold at Fort Louisbourg, Cape Breton, which housed the governor, bachelor officers and ordinary soldiers.

The negative reception Queen Elizabeth II received during her 1964 visit to Quebec City, at the height of the Quiet Revolution, contributed to the popular perception that the current Canadian crown emerged from English Canadian history alone.

The fascinating history of 17th and 18th century New France, including Canada (southern Quebec), Acadia (New Brunswick and Nova Scotia), Ile Royale (Cape Breton Island) and Isle St-Jean (Prince Edward Island) demonstrate the strong influence of the French monarchy over the development of modern day Canada. Following the final acquisition of France’s Canadian colonies by the British, after the treaty of Paris in 1763, the British monarchy assumed control of institutions and settlements already established by French Kings.

Reconstructed residences and vegetable gardens at Fort Louisbourg. The National Historic site presents Louisbourg at its zenith in the 1740s.

While the early settlement of Halifax reflected King George II’s interest in developing a defensive site to counter French attempts to regain Acadia, the establishment of Louisbourg, was an attempt by King Louis XIV to safeguard the French cod fishing industry after ceding Plancentia (in modern day Newfoundland) to the British after the Treaty of Utrecht, in 1713. In the document formalizing the “prise de possession,” [taking possession] the signatories wrote, “after having visited all the ports in the said island of Cape Breton . . .we believe we could not make a better choice.” (ed. Carol Corbin, Aspects of Louisbourg, p. 4). The name of the new settlement honoured King Louis and the island was renamed Ile Royale to reflect the authority of the French crown over the region.

The reconstructed Frederic gate in Louisbourg, reflecting the practice of naming the settlement's streets and landmarks to honour the French crown and the officials who served the King. The name honours a French minister of the marine during Louis XV's reign.

Since Louisbourg was not originally planned as a defensive site, the initial settlement developed haphazardly along the coast as fishermen and merchants claimed land for docks, warehouses and fish flakes. This unregulated development ended in 1717 when the Conseil de la Marine, under the authority of Philippe, Duc d’Orleans, regent for the young Louis XV, decided to develop Louisbourg as a fortress defending the mouth of St. Lawrence river. Louisbourg also became the capital of Ile Royale.

Under the Regency of the Duc d’Orleans, the town was reorganized between the coast and an imposing fortress with all landmarks and streets receiving names that reflected royal authority over the settlement. The fortress itself contained the “Bastion du Roi” and “Bastion de la reine” while the surrounding town was reorganized to fit a grid pattern intersected by straight roads such as the “Rue Royalle,” “Rue Dauphine,” “Rue d’Orleans” and “Rue Toulouse.” (ed. Colin Coates, Majesty in Canada: Essays on the Role of Royalty, p. 198).

The ruins of the original Fort Louisbourg with the reconstructed sections of the fort in the background.

The inhabitants of Louisbourg displayed their loyalty to the crown and gratitude for the King’s patronage by lavishly celebrating royal occasions. When news of the birth of Louis XV’s grandson, Louis-Joseph, Duke of Bourgogne, reached Louisbourg in 1752, the town staged celebrations that exceeded the King’s expectations.

Although the announcement of the royal birth only contained instructions that a Te Deum service of thanksgiving should be held in the Fortress chapel, the Governor of Louisbourg held a lavish public party with a ball and banquet for invited guests and free wine, artillery salutes, and fireworks displays for the entertainment of the whole town. King Louis XV’s portrait was prominently displayed throughout the celebrations, symbolically linking Louisbourg to its monarch.

View from the ruins of Fort Louisbourg

The original fortress and surrounding town were captured by the British in 1758 then destroyed in 1760 out of concern that the region would be returned to France during peace negotiations, as it had been following the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Approximately one quarter of the original settlement was reconstructed beginning in 1961. Louisbourg is now a living history site with a full staff of costumed interpreters performing the roles of the garrison and townspeople.There’s even a restored inn, serving the filling three course meals enjoyed by the officers and wealthy townspeople of 1740s Louisbourg.

The reconstructed fort is faithful to the French royal influence over the settlement. The Governor’s quarters are decorated with portraits of Louis XIV and Louis XV, and the rebuilt houses within the town are decorated with fleur de lys. Staff portraying the soldiers of the garrison shout “Vive le Roi” as they fire the cannons from the battlements. The modern fortress and hiking trail around the ruins of the original Louisbourg are worth including on any Maritime Canadian travel itinerary as they provide a fascinating window into the French monarchy’s role in Canadian history.

Last Week: Hanoverian Halifax

Next Week: Queen Victoria’s Influence over the Charlottetown Conference of 1864

The Tudor Book Reviews 4: The Divorce of Henry VIII: The Untold Story from Inside the Vatican by Catherine Fletcher

In most books about Henry VIII’s “Great Matter,” the King’s quest for an annulment of his marriage to his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, events that take place outside of England also take place off stage.There is the distant spectre of Catherine’s nephew, Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire, directly influencing the papacy and occasionally threatening to invade England to ensure his aunt’s continued status as Queen of England. There is the ailing Pope Clement VII, in exile in Orvieto following the sack of Rome by Imperial troops, who delays resolving the issue for years, unable to challenge Charles V and unwilling to disappoint Henry VIII.

The central character in the “Great Matter,” however, is usually Henry VIII himself. The King of England’s religious scruples, interest in Catherine’s lady-in-waiting, Anne Boleyn, and desire for a male heir have been the subject of countless scholarly and popular  works of Tudor history such as G.W. Bernard’s The King’s Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church and Henry VIII: Court, Church and Conflict.

In The Divorce of Henry VIII: The Untold Story from Inside the Vatican, Catherine Fletcher presents the negotiations surrounding the collapse of Henry VIII’s and Catherine of Aragon’s marriage in a fresh and engaging manner. Although the King of England’s portrait graces the cover of the book, the subject of Fletcher’s work is Gregorio Casali, the shrewd diplomat appointed by Cardinal Wolsey to represent Henry VIII’s interests with the papacy. The setting is the Renaissance Italian city states, where England was perceived as middle ranking European power and Henry VIII’s difficulties were an opportunity for diplomatic horse trading.

Casali’s correspondence is an important primary source for Tudor historians but this controversial diplomat’s role has never been the subject of a full length book or scholarly article. His status with his English patrons rose and fell as he attempted to negotiate the complex world of papal diplomacy to advance Henry VIII’s interests and the fortunes of his own family. As an Italian serving as the King of England’s ambassador to the Holy See while accepting a pension from King Francois I of France, Casali’s loyalties were often questioned by his English colleagues.

Although Fletcher ultimately concludes that Henry VIII’s Italian representatives did their best to find a solution to the King’s predicament within an impossible diplomatic climate, Casali did not share his patron’s personal attachment to the annulment negotiations and was not above exploiting the communication difficulties between Rome and London to present the case in a manner that would satisfy the needs of his various patrons. Fletcher repeatedly refers to Casali as “Our Man in Rome,” referencing the Graham Greene novel, Our Man in Havana, where the protagonist fakes espionage reports to pay his daughter’s finishing school fees. Like the fictional James Wormold, Casali is eager to profit from his situation as the costs of the lavish entertaining expected by diplomats of the period often outweighed the stipends he received from his various patrons.

Fletcher is an engaging writer and she has created a compelling portrait of the diplomatic climate of Renaissance Italy, where Henry VIII’s request for an annulment was considered and ultimately rejected by Pope Clement VII. At least four diplomats died as direct result of the negotiations as travel between kingdoms was dangerous and agents conveying messages between sovereigns succumbed to bandits, heatstroke or diseases caught during the journey. In Casali’s household, sources providing crucial information were diverse, and the knowledge of servants or courtesans had the potential to affect the outcome of negotiations.

In The Divorce of Henry VIII: The Untold Story from Inside the Vatican, Catherine Fletcher presents a fresh perspective on the well known marital difficulties of King Henry VIII. The  negotiations of Gregorio Casali and his fellow Italian envoys demonstrate that the King’s attempts to end his marriage to Catherine of Aragon were a significant part of the rich diplomatic climate of the Renaissance Italian states. Fletcher creates a compelling portrait of a previously overlooked diplomat at the centre of one of the most significant events in European history.

The Royal History of Canada’s Maritime Provinces Round 1: Hanoverian Halifax

View of Halifax from Fort George on Citadel Hill. The city's early history was shaped by the eighteenth century monarchy.

I spent the past couple weeks traveling around Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island on my honeymoon. In addition to spectacular scenery and really tasty seafood, these provinces contain fascinating historic sites that demonstrate the longstanding relationship between the crown and the development of modern day Canada. After a long and pleasant train ride from Toronto through Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, we began the trip in Halifax, capital of Nova Scotia.

In contrast to many other North American settlements, which were organized by emigrants themselves, Halifax was founded by the British government and centrally planned by the crown. The Mikmaq territory originally called Chebucto or “The Biggest Harbour” had been the site of the failed Duc d’Anville expedition, sent by King Louis XV of France in an attempt to recapture Acadia from the British in 1746. To protect his interests in British North America, King George II (r. 1727-1760), sent Lieutenant General Edward Cornwallis to found Halifax with thirteen transport ships filled with settlers and a warship in 1749.

Reenactors perform manoeuvres in Fort George, Citadel Hill as the 78th Highland Regiment. The Halifax Citadel National Historic Site presents life in the fort c.1869.

Since the French North American military stronghold at Louisbourg was located nearby on Cape Breton Island, and the new British settlement violated existing treaties with the Mikmaq, the first priority for Cornwallis was the fortifications, which were given suitably regal names. At the top of Citadel Hill, Fort George housed the garrison. A subsequent fort built on Georges Island in the harbour would be named Fort Charlotte after his daughter-in-law.

Although the current fort has been restored to the Victorian period, the site is one of the oldest places of British habitation in Halifax. On September 11, 1749, Cornwallis wrote to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, “The Square at the top of the Hill is finished. These squares are done with double picquets, each picquet ten foot long and six inches thick. They likewise clear a Space of 30 feet without the Line and throw up the Trees by way of Barricade. When this work is compleated I shall think the Town as secure against Indians as if it was regularly fortify’d.” The letter reassured the King about the security of the new settlement.

St. Paul's Church, the oldest building in Halifax, founded by proclamation of King George II in 1749.

Although the defense of Halifax was King George’s first priority, the monarch also took a close interest in other aspects of the town’s development. In 1749, St. Paul’s Anglican Church was founded by proclamation of the King. The original timbers were cut in Boston, which was still part of British North America at the time, and shipped to Halifax. St. Paul’s was originally the garrison church of Halifax and became the seat of the Nova Scotia Anglican diocese.

King George II’s grandson and successor, King George III provided the 1802 royal charter for the University of King’s College in Windsor, Nova Scotia, one of the oldest and best universities in Canada. (I completed the first year of my undergraduate degree there, taking the Foundation Programme of great books in Western philosophy, literature and art.). The university’s first students were Anglican loyalists who fled to Nova Scotia after the American Revolution. The university remained in Windsor until its original buildings were destroyed by fire in 1920 then moved to its current location adjacent the Dalhousie University campus in Halifax.

The current main building of the University of King's College, Halifax, which was founded in 1789 and received its royal charter in 1802.

During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, Halifax hosted the earliest royal visits to Canada, as King George III’s sons became involved in the military life of British North America. The King’s third son William, (the future King William IV) initially formed an unfavourable view of Canada when he arrived in Newfoundland as Captain of the HMS Pegasus in 1786. The Prince wrote to his father, “The face of the country is truly deplorable: the season as far backward as the beginning of April. A small brushwood for the first five hundred yards in shore and then a most dreadful inhospitable and barren country intersected by fresh water ponds, lakes and bogs. Few people have ever visited the inland parts of the island so that they are scarce known; it is not even determined whether they are inhabited.” The Prince was much happier when he visited Halifax, the following year, writing that the growing city was a “A very gay and lively place full of women and those of the most obliging kind.” To King George III’s displeasure, William took his ship on a return trip to Halifax from his subsequent posting in the West Indies without receiving permission to leave his post.

View of the Town Clock from the Citadel, one of the many buildings commissioned by Edward, Duke of Kent during his residence in Halifax.

While Prince William’s visits to Halifax were brief, his younger brother, Edward, Duke of Kent lived there for much of the 1790s, eventually becoming commander-in-chief of the British Forces in North America in 1799. The Duke of Kent took a close interest in the development of the city, founding numerous regency style public buildings including the Town Clock and St. George’s Round Church, and improving the fortifications. The Duke presided over a prosperous decade in Halifax’s history in which the population increased and new businesses were founded.

The Hanover dynasty had a profound impact on the early history of Halifax, Nova Scotia. While George II focused on the town’s potential as a defensive site, George III and his sons contributed to the development of the intellectual, economic and social life of the colony. Eighteenth century Halifax hosted Canada’s first royal visits and its historic sites demonstrate the direct involvement of the Hanover Kings and Princes in the founding and expansion of the city.

Next week: “Vive le Roi” Serving the King of France at Fort Louisbourg.